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篇2

關(guān)鍵詞: 語用預(yù)設(shè)英語聽力意義

一、前言

在英語教學(xué)中,聽力作為一種基本語言技能越來越受到英語教師的重視。然而,聽力理解對(duì)許多學(xué)生來說是一個(gè)頗為困難的環(huán)節(jié)。究其原因,學(xué)習(xí)者往往只注重語音、詞匯、語法等語言知識(shí)的提高,而忽略了結(jié)合語境因素對(duì)語言材料的推理。根據(jù)信息處理原則,聽力理解是受話者有目的地運(yùn)用儲(chǔ)存在大腦里的原有信息,對(duì)收到的信息進(jìn)行選擇、整理加工從而獲得新信息,語用預(yù)設(shè)信息作為語篇信息流的起點(diǎn)引出新信息,新信息繼而又轉(zhuǎn)化為后來語篇中的預(yù)設(shè)信息。

二、語用預(yù)設(shè)的概念

語用預(yù)設(shè)的研究開始于語義預(yù)設(shè)的研究,由于語義預(yù)設(shè)自身概念的矛盾特點(diǎn)促使越來越多的學(xué)者從其他視角考慮語用預(yù)設(shè),不再把預(yù)設(shè)簡單地認(rèn)為是真值預(yù)設(shè)或邏輯預(yù)設(shè);而是加入語境的知識(shí),認(rèn)為是話語恰當(dāng)性的條件?！坝袝r(shí)人們說一個(gè)命題預(yù)設(shè)另一個(gè)命題,有時(shí)人們說一句語句(在它的表層形式上)預(yù)設(shè)一個(gè)命題,有時(shí)人們說一個(gè)人在說一個(gè)語句的時(shí)候預(yù)設(shè)了某些東西。語言學(xué)家偶爾也說一個(gè)詞預(yù)設(shè)了一個(gè)命題”。[1]邏輯學(xué)家、語言學(xué)家們發(fā)現(xiàn),越是深入研究預(yù)設(shè)理論就越離不開語境的分析,語言外的因素成為影響預(yù)設(shè)有效傳達(dá)的關(guān)鍵。促使學(xué)者們拋開原有的真值條件的語義預(yù)設(shè),而更加注重把預(yù)設(shè)作為一種語用推理去研究。當(dāng)然這種趨勢(shì)也是由于語義預(yù)設(shè)在概念問題上尚未清晰,預(yù)設(shè)理論上的不可消除性與預(yù)設(shè)事實(shí)上的可消除性矛盾促使語言學(xué)家和邏輯學(xué)家從語境的范疇重新審視預(yù)設(shè)的語用功能。

由于語用預(yù)設(shè)研究時(shí)間尚短,一些基本問題尚在探索中,包括各種理論的融合還有待完善,所以目前還沒有一個(gè)普遍接受的定義,根據(jù)不同學(xué)者知識(shí)背景,定義不盡相同。有的理解較寬泛,有的理解較狹窄,筆者認(rèn)為歸結(jié)起來有兩種主要的方式。

第一種從言語交際行為出發(fā),把有效言語交際行為作為預(yù)設(shè)必須滿足的條件。認(rèn)為預(yù)設(shè)不能單獨(dú)構(gòu)成話語的語句意義,只是為運(yùn)用話語創(chuàng)造基礎(chǔ),使言語活動(dòng)能達(dá)到交際的目的。如黃華新教授和陳宗明教授認(rèn)為,“語用預(yù)設(shè)可以一般地表述為:一個(gè)語句S預(yù)設(shè)命題P(或P是S的預(yù)設(shè)),當(dāng)且僅當(dāng),使得語句S具有恰當(dāng)性”。當(dāng)然,在運(yùn)用語用預(yù)設(shè)規(guī)則中,“除了滿足條件以外還有排除條件。也就是說,一個(gè)語句S預(yù)設(shè)命題P,如果同說話人遵守合作原則或語境因素相矛盾,則命題P被取消”。

另一種理解是從言語交際功能出發(fā),把語用預(yù)設(shè)看作是實(shí)際雙方所共有的背景知識(shí),認(rèn)為自然語言就是要在一定語境中起到成功交際的作用,即說話人說出話語,或聽話人理解話語都要加入語境的某些因素。

三、語用預(yù)設(shè)的特征

(一)語用預(yù)設(shè)具有共識(shí)性

人類社會(huì)的復(fù)雜性是與人腦的高度發(fā)展分不開的,而思維的表達(dá)大部分是通過人類的言語表達(dá)的,這就造成了人類言語在交際過程中的復(fù)雜性。

長期的社會(huì)生活使人們以最少信息量傳達(dá)最大意思成為共識(shí),在交際中往往省略雙方已知的信息,或者說話者認(rèn)為聽話者已知的共同背景知識(shí),而這部分省略的信息就是語用預(yù)設(shè)的共識(shí)性。預(yù)設(shè)的共識(shí)性是指說話雙方的共同知道的事物,即第三者如不了解預(yù)設(shè)而只依靠語境,則不一定能真正理解說話雙方對(duì)話內(nèi)容。

例:關(guān)于小李、小王選派出國的對(duì)話。

A:我看,這次出國的名額很難落到小李的頭上。

B:噢,我也有同感,小王各方面條件都優(yōu)于小李,應(yīng)該是小王。

A:沒錯(cuò)!

在以上兩者的對(duì)話中,顯而易見他們的交際取得成功,各自表達(dá)了自己的想法,并且二者在對(duì)話中都已明確雙方的共同知識(shí)背景。即單位選派出國人選在小李與小王二者之間,不是小李就是小王,不會(huì)有其他人出現(xiàn)。并且當(dāng)A說小李難選上時(shí),邏輯必然地推出小王能選上。

(二)語用預(yù)設(shè)具有主觀性

語用預(yù)設(shè)具有主觀性,是指說話者帶有斷言性質(zhì)的語境假設(shè),本身并不具備必然的真實(shí)性或正確性。在言語交際前,雙方并不知道對(duì)方各自的語用預(yù)設(shè)的背景知識(shí)范圍,而只能是在不斷深入的交流中,通過自己的判斷和雙方交際過程中相互質(zhì)證和認(rèn)證的過程中實(shí)現(xiàn),但有時(shí)這種證實(shí)又不能始終保持正確。此時(shí)就需要雙方修正各自的背景知識(shí)范圍,達(dá)到最大程度上的同構(gòu)。

例如:“今天的《參考消息》要下午送來,爺爺只好出去遛彎了?！闭f話者在說出這一命題時(shí),是自己主觀上認(rèn)為聽話者能夠理解“爺爺每天上午要看《參考消息》”的,比如說話者面對(duì)的聽者是同住一起的姐姐或是奶奶,那么這樣的語用預(yù)設(shè)就能夠被聽話者所理解,并將進(jìn)一步運(yùn)用到下一步的交際中。但是如果面對(duì)的聽話者不是自己的家人而是送報(bào)紙的郵遞員,郵遞員也許就不會(huì)有與其家人一樣的背景知識(shí),僅僅可能會(huì)認(rèn)為每天這家的老人只是取報(bào)紙而已,報(bào)紙有可能是為這家里其他人定的,比如爸爸。可見,在說話者說出這一預(yù)設(shè)時(shí),聽話者并不一定能夠領(lǐng)會(huì),是說話者自己主觀上斷定的,能否能成為交際中合適的預(yù)設(shè)還要等聽話者的回應(yīng)才能作出。

(三)語用預(yù)設(shè)具有隱蔽性

語用預(yù)設(shè)具有隱蔽性,是指語用預(yù)設(shè)并不是從字面意思就可以得到的,是隱含在語句中的,需要聽話者自己去挖掘。如果不留神就會(huì)把預(yù)設(shè)的“斷言”看作是真實(shí)的而加以接受,就會(huì)陷于復(fù)雜問句中,置自己于被動(dòng)地位。復(fù)雜問句的本質(zhì)是語用預(yù)設(shè)的隱蔽性,是言語交際的隱含前提。例如對(duì)一名檢察官來說,當(dāng)他在詢問犯罪嫌疑人是否有作案嫌疑時(shí),他可能會(huì)這樣說:“你是幾點(diǎn)離開案發(fā)現(xiàn)場的?”在這種情況下,無論犯罪嫌疑如何回答,都已承認(rèn)到過案發(fā)現(xiàn)場。當(dāng)然,在我國社會(huì)主義法治建設(shè)逐漸完善的今天,這樣帶有誘導(dǎo)式的審訊方式已經(jīng)不存在

了,但作為一種有效交際的方式在法律界的其他領(lǐng)域,語用預(yù)設(shè)還是有著它的生命力的。

四、語用預(yù)設(shè)與英語聽力

預(yù)設(shè)對(duì)語境因素十分敏感,并且與說話人和其他語言外因素有密切的關(guān)系。有時(shí)說話人會(huì)根據(jù)語用預(yù)設(shè)在具體語境中的體現(xiàn)方式和隱含意義,將預(yù)設(shè)進(jìn)行改變,從而實(shí)現(xiàn)自己的語用意圖。也就是說,在具體的語言環(huán)境中,一個(gè)話語可能有多個(gè)預(yù)設(shè),一個(gè)預(yù)設(shè)也可能有多重含義,即預(yù)設(shè)的“語境多維性”。

在有些情況下,語用預(yù)設(shè)是通過明確的標(biāo)示,如預(yù)設(shè)的觸發(fā)語(trigger)來表示出來的。但在有些情況下,語用預(yù)設(shè)則表現(xiàn)得不那么明顯,這就需要學(xué)生運(yùn)用語用推理推導(dǎo)出話語中隱含的語用預(yù)設(shè),從而正確理解會(huì)話含義。下面,筆者通過實(shí)例,分析測(cè)試者如何在聽力測(cè)試中運(yùn)用語用預(yù)設(shè)來考查受試者的語篇理解能力。

(一)對(duì)話理解

1.推斷說話者之間的關(guān)系

W:This is the third time you’ve been late this week,Robert,you’ll have to do better than that,or I might find it necessary to let you go.

M:It won’t happen again,I assure you.

Q:Who spoke to Robert?

通過這道題,我們了解到女士說的Robert這個(gè)星期已經(jīng)是第三次遲到了,還有像“l(fā)et go”這樣的信息。通常是老板解雇雇員,這是本題所蘊(yùn)含的語用預(yù)設(shè)。因此,通過這一預(yù)設(shè)我們不難判斷出,說話雙方的關(guān)系是老板與雇員之間的關(guān)系。

2.推斷引申含義

M:The light in the dining room is a little too bright,don’t you think so?

W:It’s perfect for a football stadium.

Q:What does the woman mean?

足球場必須燈光通明,而西方餐廳流行幽暗朦朧的燈光是本題的這一具體語境的語用預(yù)設(shè)。在此預(yù)設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行分析推理,就可以得出那位女士說的話是同意先生的意見的。

(二)短文填空

短文主要是考查考生對(duì)文章達(dá)意、中心思想、重要事件的理解和領(lǐng)會(huì),以及根據(jù)所獲得的相關(guān)信息對(duì)文中的某些細(xì)節(jié)作出聯(lián)想、判斷,也有就短文中的某一事實(shí)和任務(wù)進(jìn)行提問的題目。在聽力短文測(cè)試中,考生不要期望字字句句都聽得真切,抓住短文中最能反映主旨大意和主題的關(guān)鍵詞匯或短語分析出短文的語用預(yù)設(shè),然后進(jìn)行成功推斷才是重要的聽力策略。

五、結(jié)語

語用預(yù)設(shè)作為交際雙方共有的背景知識(shí),對(duì)言語信息傳遞起著不容忽視的作用。聽者只有與發(fā)話者建構(gòu)同一預(yù)設(shè)信息,才能達(dá)到理解話語的目的。在英語聽力教學(xué)中,教師要有意識(shí)地講授一些相關(guān)的預(yù)設(shè)知識(shí),引導(dǎo)學(xué)生根據(jù)聽力文字材料和答案選項(xiàng)等線索,從中發(fā)現(xiàn)一些背景預(yù)設(shè)信息,以縮小談話者的話題范圍,最后推斷出聽話人所需的信息。

參考文獻(xiàn):

[1]中國人民大學(xué)哲學(xué)系邏輯教研室.邏輯學(xué).北京:中國人民大學(xué)出版社,2003:79-84.

[2]鄒崇理.邏輯.語言與信息.北京:人民出版社,2002:76-78.

[3]黃華新,陳宗明.描述語用學(xué).長春:吉林人民出版社,2005:135.

[4]熊學(xué)亮.語言學(xué)新解.上海:復(fù)旦大學(xué)出版社,2003:15-18.

[5]張春泉.語用邏輯芻議.浙江社會(huì)科學(xué).2004.5:148.

[6]何向東,袁正校.交際意圖――語用推理的目標(biāo).自然辯證法研究增刊.2000.6:67.

篇3

尼康中國：#尼康學(xué)堂# 選擇在色相環(huán)上位置接近的顏色，并將它們一起攝入，畫面色調(diào)會(huì)非常和諧。而大自然里充滿了這種和諧，比如綠色與黃色就可以創(chuàng)作出值得稱贊的畫面。秋季是拍攝這類題材的好時(shí)節(jié)，到處都充滿了黃色、棕色和橙色，攝友們不妨多出去走走。

10月21日 10:17 來自新浪微博

新攝影：除了購買昂貴的器材外，你還能想出多少微距攝影的方法？設(shè)計(jì)師Clif Dickens用了一樣非常便宜且簡單的工具：放大鏡。他使用放大鏡和iPhone 3GS拍攝微距照片。這套器材最大的優(yōu)點(diǎn)就在于，可以隨時(shí)隨地享受微距攝影的樂趣。

11月14日16:48 來自新浪微博

尼康中國：#尼康學(xué)堂# 外出拍攝可隨身攜帶的小物件：1.黑布：方便人工布置背景，突出主體；2.白布、白卡紙(有一定硬度)、小夾子：一是可以方便補(bǔ)光，二是可以擋風(fēng)，以防花草在風(fēng)中搖擺；3.省略/SAmIyg

11月14日 16:58 來自 新浪微博專業(yè)版

新攝影：若干年前國際職業(yè)婚禮攝影師協(xié)會(huì)做過一次關(guān)于攝影師如何分配時(shí)間的調(diào)查。在一般人想象中，攝影師80%時(shí)間在拍照，其他時(shí)間在國外旅行和開party。然而真實(shí)的情況是職業(yè)攝影師主要時(shí)間用來做后期，其他還有一堆零碎工作，真正用來拍照的時(shí)間只有12.2%。

11月7日17:38 來自新浪微博

以色列在中國：猶太攝影師Sanzetti先生上世紀(jì)在上海開設(shè)的“上海美術(shù)照相館”曾經(jīng)給無數(shù)人留下回憶。如今，我們從Sanzetti先生的繼子手里拿到了約兩百余張他本人珍藏的一批老照片。希望能夠找到照片中人物的姓名、身份，拾起照片背后的回憶和故事。

10月27日 13:31 來自新浪微博

【人物】

環(huán)球攝影：#運(yùn)動(dòng)中的靜態(tài)美# Lois Greenfield，美國攝影師，她拍攝的舞蹈攝影作品，是業(yè)內(nèi)首屈一指的。在Lois Greenfield攝影生涯的最近25年里，她致力于對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)和運(yùn)動(dòng)的表現(xiàn)力的研究。她的靈感一直來源于她可以停止時(shí)間，揭示肉眼看不到的事物的能力。

11月10日 13:25 來自新浪微博

李維LeviTong：攝影是一件需要天賦的事情，后天刻意的學(xué)習(xí)只能雕琢你的匠氣，卻無法改變你觀看世界的方式。世上本沒有什么決定性瞬間，Jacques Henri Lartigue的照片讓你明白，生活之大賦予了每一個(gè)瞬間無限的可能。他的著名照片許多都是在童年時(shí)代拍的，直到他68歲的時(shí)候他兒時(shí)拍的照片才為世人所知，成為一代攝影大師。

11月10日 12:51 來自新浪微博

篇4

本片中的官方宣傳海報(bào)中，有一個(gè)穿著紅衣服的小女孩，這在一個(gè)黑白電影中顯得尤為特別，可見作者對(duì)于這個(gè)色彩應(yīng)用的重視?，F(xiàn)代電影越來越注重色彩的應(yīng)用，色彩不僅僅是電影語言的基本構(gòu)成原元素，也更加是一種藝術(shù)手法，色彩的運(yùn)用不僅僅是對(duì)生活的本色的還原，更是多層次的以及有深度的呈現(xiàn)，《辛德勒名單》是一部黑白片，除了黑白色彩的強(qiáng)烈反差，本片的色調(diào)相對(duì)來說較為暗淡，這也為整部片子奠定了一個(gè)陰暗、悲愴的情感基調(diào)，與電影的主題和內(nèi)容結(jié)合緊密，斯皮爾伯格在拍攝這部電影的時(shí)候曾經(jīng)說，他除了黑白色別無選擇，盡管本片的色調(diào)是黑白為主的冷色系，但導(dǎo)演還是巧妙地安排了清涼和明朗的顏色，就是那個(gè)在大屠殺之前穿著血色裙子的小女孩，在黑白色為主的電影中，那個(gè)紅色顯得那么的美麗和鮮艷甚至刺眼，足夠引起觀眾的重視和思考，紅色裙子的設(shè)定分別在是片頭和片尾部分，到第二次出現(xiàn)的時(shí)候，穿紅色裙子的孩子躺在了堆積如山的尸體上，并瞬間被無盡的灰暗所吞噬，顯然她并沒有走進(jìn)辛德勒的名單里。這也是本片色彩運(yùn)用的亮點(diǎn)，它的暗示和象征意義非常明顯，就是讓觀眾去思考和深思，紅色代表著生機(jī)和活力，被無盡的黑暗吞噬也象征著人類歷史上那段慘無人道的歷史，緊扣本片的主題，象征著泯滅人性的德國納粹對(duì)于人類生存和希望的毀滅，這種明顯的暗示所產(chǎn)生的視覺和心理的沖擊力是巨大的，而且也非常容易理解，是導(dǎo)演獨(dú)具匠心的色彩安排，也是本片色彩藝術(shù)的重要體現(xiàn)。值得一提的是，本片的片尾部分是用彩色畫面拍攝的，特別是很多被奧斯卡救下來的猶太人的后人紛紛來到這里紀(jì)念他們的救命恩人，一個(gè)個(gè)的小石子以及鮮艷的花兒，都表達(dá)著人們濃濃的情意，結(jié)局部分的場景是在一個(gè)山丘上，整體的拍攝手法是采用高調(diào)攝影，色彩相對(duì)柔和、輕快，這里的色彩運(yùn)用體現(xiàn)著導(dǎo)演對(duì)于和平和美好的贊美，也對(duì)于觀眾有一定的撫慰作用，結(jié)局的美好也象征著電影“善”主題的回歸。

二、電影音樂欣賞

合理的電影音樂對(duì)于電影劇情的推動(dòng)、情感表達(dá)有著非常重要的作用。音樂鑒賞也是電影欣賞設(shè)計(jì)的重要環(huán)節(jié)，那些或激情、或舒緩、或輕快的音樂真實(shí)而細(xì)膩地表現(xiàn)了電影的情感，也體現(xiàn)著一個(gè)導(dǎo)演內(nèi)心世界的主觀感受。影片中有一幅場景是，為了避免尸體腐爛引起的瘟疫以及掩蓋罪證，納粹人開始將堆積如山的尸體進(jìn)行焚燒，高大的煙囪冒著濃濃的黑煙，這個(gè)時(shí)候舒緩的古典音樂響起，并配合男女聲的伴唱充分地融合，像是一聲聲微弱的哭訴直擊觀眾的心靈，這個(gè)時(shí)候的音樂與畫面的結(jié)合恐怕只能用熨帖兩個(gè)字來形容了，正是音樂與畫面的這種完美貼合，將影片的主題發(fā)揮到了極致。片中對(duì)于音樂的運(yùn)用并不刻意強(qiáng)調(diào)調(diào)動(dòng)觀眾的情感，更加是一種平和的自然的描述，是隨著情節(jié)的展開一氣呵成的，甚至通篇來看，幾乎都是非常柔和的抒情方式，好像是一個(gè)人在平靜地講故事，而不是有意帶動(dòng)觀眾的情緒，這大概是對(duì)于音樂運(yùn)用的最高境界了。也說明了斯皮爾伯格對(duì)于電影藝術(shù)的獨(dú)特見解，音樂自然運(yùn)用也給了觀眾足夠的想象空間，平和的電影音樂不會(huì)干擾觀眾對(duì)電影的理解和判斷，反而更加能夠觸發(fā)觀眾的情感共鳴，更加有助于觀眾去思考和理解電影所要傳達(dá)的深刻的思想內(nèi)涵。

三、電影的敘事風(fēng)格

本片作為一部文藝電影，在全球獲得了3.21億美元的票房實(shí)屬難得，這與本片的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)有著非常重要的關(guān)系。很多的文藝電影相對(duì)來說比較枯燥，導(dǎo)演過多地強(qiáng)調(diào)電影的文藝性而忽視了故事性，非常影響觀眾的觀影體驗(yàn)，畢竟電影的根本目的是來講故事的，而電影的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)和風(fēng)格對(duì)于電影敘事有著直接的關(guān)系。本片將當(dāng)時(shí)重大的歷史事件濃縮到了一個(gè)人的命運(yùn)當(dāng)中。也就是說電影是有著兩條敘事線索的，一個(gè)是主角本身，另一個(gè)是歷史背景?！缎恋吕彰麊巍肥菤v史紀(jì)實(shí)電影，本身就屬于非常嚴(yán)肅的歷史題材，因此本片主要的敘事風(fēng)格和技巧體現(xiàn)在以人物為主線的敘事過程中，通過人物本身的經(jīng)歷、情感真實(shí)地表現(xiàn)出一個(gè)完整的故事，并讓觀眾去感受這個(gè)故事，是本片敘事結(jié)構(gòu)的主要特點(diǎn)。從理論上分析，本片的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)是采用一個(gè)個(gè)片段的動(dòng)作關(guān)系和時(shí)間關(guān)系的組合，每個(gè)自然的片段之間并沒有直接的因果關(guān)系，這既是歷史紀(jì)實(shí)電影的特點(diǎn)，也是本片想要刻意強(qiáng)調(diào)的，即它不再是一部電影，而是一段段真實(shí)歷史的再現(xiàn)，讓觀眾在觀影過程中產(chǎn)生強(qiáng)烈的真實(shí)感和代入感，比如對(duì)于集中營的描寫顯得非常散亂，表面上看似隨意穿來街頭的槍殺、焚尸等情節(jié)的設(shè)定，實(shí)際上是有目的的組織和安排，與本片直線型的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)有著很好的輔助作用。盡管這種自然客觀的敘事結(jié)構(gòu)和風(fēng)格并無太多技巧而言，但正是由于歷史中荒誕、諷刺、矛盾的現(xiàn)實(shí)，才讓本片的故事富有生機(jī)。例如德國人接受了猶太工程師的意見以后直接將其槍殺，德國上尉殺人如麻卻每每打不出子彈，火車錯(cuò)誤地開進(jìn)了奧斯維辛集中營，這些片段的設(shè)置情節(jié)發(fā)展所必須的，并非是毫無組織的散亂的歷史片段，始終是圍繞影片的主題來開展的。每一個(gè)歷史片段的設(shè)置都與情節(jié)有著深刻的聯(lián)系，或者其內(nèi)在本身就是敘事的重要環(huán)節(jié)，比如片尾部分猶太人走向了地平線時(shí)，象征著內(nèi)在意義上的自由和新生。另外本片的敘事風(fēng)格也在其鏡頭語言中有所體現(xiàn)，為了真實(shí)還原歷史場景，本片大量的在波蘭實(shí)地取景，甚至歷史的場景和片段都是真實(shí)的畫面，以此來表現(xiàn)那個(gè)動(dòng)蕩年代的真實(shí)情況。

四、結(jié)語

篇5

[Key words]: Euphemism， application， social influence， positive， negative

【摘 要】 語言交際是人類以維系社會(huì)關(guān)系的重要手段，因而人們?cè)诮浑H中通常避免使用引起雙方不快從而損害雙方關(guān)系的語言，而是采取迂回曲折的方法來表達(dá)思想，交流信息，它不僅是種語言現(xiàn)象，而且是社會(huì)現(xiàn)象和文化現(xiàn)象。委婉語言體現(xiàn)了相應(yīng)的社會(huì)文化傳統(tǒng)。本文主要闡述了英語委婉語的構(gòu)成方法以及它的社會(huì)影響，并著重從修辭手段，語義手段，構(gòu)詞手段及語法手段對(duì)委婉語言作了較全面的分析，并對(duì)委婉語在交際中的語用功能和表達(dá)方式做了一些探討，從委婉語的“避諱”功能，“禮貌”功能和“掩飾”功能三個(gè)方面探討了委婉語在社會(huì)生活中的運(yùn)用，了解委婉語在運(yùn)用中的積極作用和消極作用， 有助于我們更深入的了解英語國家人們的思維方式、社會(huì)價(jià)值觀、道德觀以及文化風(fēng)俗，對(duì)于提高自身言語交際功能是十分必要的。

【關(guān)鍵詞】 委婉語； 運(yùn)用； 社會(huì)影響; 積極；消極

1. Introduction

Euphemism is originally from Greek， meaning， “speak with gook words”. “eu” means “well or sounding well”; “pheme” means “speech”. Its definition in Oxford English Dictionary is “(example of the) use of pleasant， mild， or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”[1]

The appearance of euphemism is based on two reasons: one aims to take the place of “taboo”. When giving up a taboo word， people will find another new one to take the place of it， which creates a euphemism. The other aims to avoid offensiveness during the communication. It is a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive thing is described or referred to by a milder term.

In English language， euphemism is widely used in the daily communications. In order to achieve the aim of “taboo”， it is used to avoid the unpleasant thing; in order to achieve the aim of “politeness”， it is used to avoid the inelegant things[2]， which are the two social psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is one of the important parts of figure of speech. It is not only a linguistic phenomenon， but also a kind of social phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. Euphemism in use differs from person to person， from profession to profession， even from class to class[3] ， That’s why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle you if you do not know the background of English culture. To grasp the English euphemism can not only help us open our eyes， but strengthen our ability of reading comprehension. This paper aims to discuss the application of euphemism in English and to make acknowledge of its social influence， which could help us use euphemism in a correct way.

2. Ways to express euphemism

2.1. Figure of speech

2.1.1. Metonymy.

That is to use the general words to take the place of the concrete words. “Passed away” which refers to “dead” belongs to metonymy. It can be pided into the following forms: 1) to use the container to take the place of the things in the container. For example: “to be fond of the bottle” is a euphemism for “l(fā)iking to drink”. 2) To use the entirety instead of the part. For example: “abdomen” is used to refer to “belly”; “l(fā)imb” refers to “l(fā)eg”. For some special occasions， the part can be used instead of the entirety. In Australian English “an old hand” is a euphemism for “an old prisoner”. 3) To use the tools to take the place of the objects. For example， “pick” is a tool of prying the lock. It can refer to “thief”. 4) To use raw materials to take the place of finished products. For instance， “poppy” is a kind of flower， but it also refers to “opium”. 5) To use characteristics to take the place of objects. For example， “hellow” is a greeting word， and it is also a euphemism for “prostitute” because prostitutes often use this word to solicit the whoremasters; “blood and iron” is a euphemism for “violence”. 6) To use proper words to replace the objects. For example， “napoleon” is a French golden coin on which there is Napoleon’s head portrait. “Borstal” is a name of countryside in Kent in Britain. It can also refer to “juvenile delinquency”.

Sometimes， some euphemisms are frequently used instead of the original words; people gradually forget their euphemistic identities. They are not used in terms of euphemisms but have their own independent meanings. For instance， take above-mentioned “poppy”， now if you look up this word in the dictionary， you can find the meaning of “opium”， it has lost its euphemistic function. And， if you do not know the background， you can not know the meaning of “Napoleon” and “Borstal”. Therefore， we can see the importance of knowing the background of English culture. It can help you a lot to recognize and understand the real meaning of euphemism and make good use of it.

2.1.2. Metaphor

To use metaphor can easily avoid the offensive things. For example， wherefore it is better to be a guest of the law， which， though conducted by rules， does not meddle unduly with a gentleman’s private affairs. (O. Henry， The Cop and the Anthem) “to be a guest of the law” is a euphemism for “to be in prison”[4]， Many euphemisms for “death” were created by way of metaphor， such as going to his long home， to be home and free， to go to sleep， to sleep the long (or eternal， never-ending) sleep， to rest in peace， to be at rest， to go to Heaven (or Paradise)， to join one’s ancestors， to be gathered to one’s fathers， to join the immortals. More examples are: agedsunset years， to be poorto be pinched， to have improper sexual intercourse with girls(especially maiden) to deflower; to degenerateto go astray; breastmilk bottles; catameniathe red flag; to be pregnantto be on the nest; the money of briberygrease; to bribeto grease somebody’s palm; handcuffsbracelets.

2.1.3 Personification

People’s names are often used to replace taboo words. For example， “Big Harry” refers to “heroin” because “Harry” and “heroin” have the same initials. “Lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions. In 19th century， it was called “ my aunt Jones”， “Mrs. Jones”， “Sir John”， “Sir Harry”， “the Henry”， while in 20th century， it was called “jakes”， “john” etc. But the latter color of personification becomes weak. The first letter can be written in small letter. People just use it as a common noun. In fact， they have lost the euphemistic function. There are many humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: 1) My friend has come. 2) I have a visitor. 3) My cousins/country cousins have come. 4) My auntie/grandmother has come to stay. 5) Little sister is here. 6) I’ve got painters in. 7) the cardinal has come.

2.1.4. Analogy

In the euphemisms for occupation people often use analogy， which makes the humble name more elegant[5] ， For example， “chef” is a euphemism for “cook”. It is borrowed from French word “chef de cuisine”. “Beautician” refers to “hairdresser”; “garbologist” refers to “garbage collector”; “mortician” refers to “undertaker”. There also appeared some beautiful names for barbershop: hair salon， beauty parlour， and stylist parlour.

2.1.5. Ellipsis

That is to omit the offensive words while speaking， such as to be expecting (a baby)， to have (sexual) relations with somebody， to take precautions (against pregnancy)， to depart (from this world). Of course， such phrases should be put into a certain context， which can express the meaning of euphemisms.

2.1.6. Periphrasis

It is an expression of beating around the bush. Though it is a muddled acting， its aim is to avoid offending others， and to be more polite[6]. If someone asked a woman whether she was knitting a tiny garment， he meant that he wondered whether she was pregnant. Such way of speaking is humorous， sweet and agreeable， such as to dieto close one’s eyes， to expire， to breathe one’s last; to defecate and to urinateto wash one’s hands， to ease or relieve oneself， to do one’s business; to courtto go walking; to be pregnantto eat for two; lavatorywashroom， cloakroom; fartwind from behind; women’s underclothesunmentionables; trousersnether garments; ask you to go awaycall your carriage for you; to dismissto give somebody the sack; to be in prisonto live at the government's expense. Teachers often use this expression to avoid the students’ and their parents’ awkwardness. For example， laziness is called “needing ample supervision in order to work well”; “cheat” is described as “needing help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play”; “l(fā)ies” is called “showing difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual material”; “steal” is called “needing help in learning to respect the property rights of others”; “be a bully” refers to “having qualities of leadership but needs help in learning to use them democratically”; “dirty” is called “ be lack of proper health habits”.[7]

2.2. Semantic method

2.2.1. Synonym

For example， “tight” is used instead of “stingy”; “thrift” is used instead of “economical”，“defecate” replaces “shift” and “urine” replaces “piss” . And “mad” is replaced by “crazy”， “insane”， and “l(fā)unatic”. Such euphemism aims to use the appreciative term to take the place of the derogatory term.

2.2.2. Negation

Such euphemism uses the contrary term to express the same meaning， and it could be more useful than synonym in replacing the taboo and make people more understandable and comfortable. We could call stupid people unwise people. “A fat chance” means “a slim chance”and “find words” stands for “bad words”

2.2.3. Vague words and expressions

That is to make the harsher or offensive words more general. For example， if somebody has some mental problems， we can express it like this: His roof leaks a little; he has a screw loose/missing; he is not at home. There are other examples which use vague expressions， such as diseasetrouble， problem; to come across an unfortunate thingto have an accident; V. D. (venereal disease) secret disease; to live together illegallyto cohabit; intrauterine devicering; to rape somebodyto do violence to somebody; prostitutea woman of the streets， a woman of a certain class， a painted woman， a lady of the night girl; to entertain whorehouse visitorsto see company; whorehousehouse; a squintan obliquity of vision; a man of bad tastea man of doubtful taste; strikeindustrial action; the poorthe underprivileged， the disadvantaged; in debtin difficulties; buttocksbehind， bottom， backsides; homosexualqueer; sexual intercourseintimacy; to be killedto be put to sleep.

2.2.4. Loan words

Because from the period of Renaissance， Latin， Greek， and French are considered as cultured words[8]. People consider that those languages are more elegant， tactful and ambiguous. In the early 19th century， no matter in Britain or America， people used French word “enceinte” instead of English word “pregnant”. It is popular till now because the former is more elegant， tactful and ambiguous. English borrows words not only from French but also from other languages in many kinds of ways to create its own euphemism. For example， “l(fā)avatory” was borrowed from Latin word “l(fā)avatorium”， but it lost its meaning of euphemism because of long- time using. Therefore， people borrowed another euphemism from French “toilette” which was respelled into “toilet”， and it became the most popular euphemism referring to lavatory. French words “chemise” and “l(fā)ingerie” are euphemisms for “underwear” and “blouse” respectively. “sushi” was borrowed from Japanese “すし”. Its original meaning is a kind of Japanese food. People put it into a phrase “a little tongue sushi”， which means “tongue kissing”. The above words mostly belong to the common vocabulary. In addition， euphemisms also borrow some science and technological words and academic words that are cold， clinic and antiseptic. Such words are mainly from Latin and Greek. For example， Latin word “coitus” is a euphemism for “fuck”; Native words “shit” and “piss” are all dirty words， while Latin word “defecation” and Greek word “urination” are all accepted easily.

2.2.5. Understatement

That is to state some serious things in a temperate way in order to avoid being awkward and strident[9] . For example， “She was neither quite pretty nor quiet plain.” “Plain” is used instead of “ugly”; “My cousin Jimmy was a bit soft in the head.” “Soft in the head” means “mad”; “The boy used to take things without permission and has just been out of the rehabilitation home in the country.” (steal， detention home); the period of economic depressiona period of economic adjustment; money for briberykickback， commission; poor familieslow income families; falling behindless advanced; retarded childrenless able children; an ugly girla plain or homely girl; disabledphysically handicapped; to be illto look off color， to feel unwell or uncomfortable; treatmenthealth care; old ageadvanced in age.

2.3. The variety of pronunciation and spelling form

English is an alphabetic writing. The variation of phonetic form can avoid the original conception in a certain degree and achieve the purpose of euphemism. 1) Compounding: gezunda (goes under). 2) Acronym: DA (drug addict)， KG (know gambler)， B.O.T (balance of time)， J.D (juvenile delinquent)， P and Q (peace and quiet). 3) Back-formation: burgle (burgler) 4) chipping: vamp (vampire)， homo (homosexual)， gents (Gentlemen’s Room)， and ladies (Ladies Room)[10].

There is an interesting example: “l(fā)aboratory”， the original stress was on the first syllable. But it sounded similarly to “l(fā)avatory”. In order to avoid the unpleasant connection， the stress was moved to the second syllable. Such phenomenon is called Assonance. That is to make use of or to create words， which have the same or similar pronunciations with euphemistic words in order to achieve the purpose of euphemism. Therefore， in English there is a way of personification to express “catamenia”: The captain is at home. It is because “captain” is assonant with the medical science term “catamenia”. In oral English， “pee” is used to refer to “piss”， which has the same reason.

2.4. Grammar

That is to use past tense， negative sentence to express euphemism. For example， I can see by your face that you don’t think that was wise. The negative form means “thinking that was foolish”; “How do we feel today?” Using “we” instead of “you” shows the moderation and geniality. “I wanted to…” “I wondered…” often take the place of “I want to…” “I wonder…” Such expression is often used in oral English.[11]

3 The Social Influences of Euphemism

Euphemism is widely used in America and Britain. It has a long history. New euphemisms emerge in an endless stream. According to its applied functions， I’d like to pide it into three parts: Avoidance， Courtesy and Disguise. Through studying the three functions， we can understand the western society’s view on value and morality.

3.1. Avoidance

The earliest subject of Euphemism is religious[12]. The conception of taboo is deep-rooted in people’s mind， and it is not easy to remove. The appearance of taboo could date back to ancient Greek and ancient Roman. In human’s eyes God owns a super power that could control everything. Because fearing of the secret power， People use euphemism to avoid mentioning the guilty， unpleasant， rude or offensive words， which plays a role of purifying languages. For example， European Americans avoid speaking “Friday” and “13”. When the two things appear in the same day， it is an ill omen. And there is an example: there appeared an episode in 1972 when President Nicoson visited China. Chinese Premier Zhou went to Shanghai to receive American visitors. He found that Mr. and Mrs. Nicoson were arranged to live in Room15， Kissinger in Room14， but some state councilors in Room13? The Western people often take Number 13 as a taboo. After entering their apartments， Premier Zhou was aware that these Western visitors seemed unhappy. So he explained:” it is a pity that we have made a serious mistake. We ignored the special Western culture.” He continued，” There was an old Chinese fable that when a man was afraid of ghost， the more he thought， the more he felt terrified. At the time he felt no fear， he began to look for the ghost， but the ghost disappeared…Number 13 in Western culture looked like the Chinese ghost.” Hearing his story， the American visitors laughed heartily. At last they cooled down. From this example， we can realize the necessity of the cultural infiltration in language communication. So we must pay attention to the social influence of euphemism. This avoidance function is the first communication function of euphemisms[13]. Such function is often used in the following situations:

轉(zhuǎn)貼于 3.1.1. The euphemisms for God and devil

The Ten Commandments of Bible has prescribed， “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.” That’s why there are so many euphemisms. In oral English， using “God” causally would be considered blasphmous. If someone say “God damni it” he is treason and heresy， and would be punished [14] . Some of them adopt the semantic method， such as the Creator， the Maker， the Supreme (Being)， Holy One， the Almighty， the Eternal， Our Father， the Saviour， King of Kings， Lord of lords， the Light of the World， Sovereign of the Universe. Some of them adopt the phonetic method， such as Gad， Gosh， Golly， Godfrey etc. There are many euphemisms for “the devil”， such as old enemy， old Ned， Old Nick， Old One， Ole’un (Old Man)， Old Scratch， Old Serpent， the Old Boy etc. For example， “He was frightened as if Old Harry were before him.” In English they often use “heck” instead of “hell”. “hell” has other expressions: “the other place， a very uncomfortable place， the other way etc.” For example， “We were all going direct to Heaven; we were all going direct the other way.” [15]

3.1.2 The euphemisms for death

Euphemism is often caused in speaking of things that are painful and distressing to think about. Death is one of expressions. The euphemisms for death are a widely used item， especially when it concerns one’s own families and friends. It has a lot of expressions[16]. For example， if anything should happen to me (= when I die); to pass away/ on; to depart; to go to sleep; to be no longer with us; to be interred. “Death” also has some humorous expressions: “to pop off; to push up daisies; to cash in one’s chips; to kick the bucket ”. “Death” also has an intimate relationship with religion. There are many euphemisms from Bible， for example， to return to dust/ earth; to pay the debt of nature; to be called to God/ to answer the final summons; to go to heaven; to be at peace， to be asleep in the Arms of God; to yield up the ghost; to launch into eternity; to have one’s name inscribed in the Book of life etc. Some words， which concern “death”， also have euphemistic expressions. For example， “coffin” is called “casket”; “dead body” is called “earthly remains”; “funeral” is called “memorial service”; “graveyard” is called “memory garden”.

3.1.3. The euphemisms for illness， natural and man-made calamities

Most westerners avoid talking about some serious diseases. For instance， “terminally ill” is a euphemism for “cancer”; American and British newspapers often name “syphilis” as “social disease”; “l(fā)eprosy” is called “Hansen’s disease”; “constipation” is called “irregularity”. “tumour” is called “a growth”; “commit suicide” is called “self-deliverance or self-violence”. People often use initialing to avoid talk about some diseases directly， such as AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome); Big C (Cancer); VD (Venereal Disease) etc. “to die because of a crash” is called “old Newton took him”; “hara-kiri” is called “happy dispatch”; “an unnatural death” is called “to be blown across the creek”

3.1.4. The euphemisms for sex

Nearly all languages consider “sex” a taboo word. In the west， when children asked their parents where they came from， their parents often answered the baby was a visit from the stork. People can say “pregnant” instead of “expecting” or “in the family way”; “fart” is also written into the dictionary. You can say it directly instead of saying， “wind from behind” It is just because of the movement of “sex liberty” and “sex liberation”. People can have a freer talk about “sex” than Victorian age. On the contrary， some other new euphemisms for sex appeared one after another. “Sexual knowledge” is called “facts of life”; “pornographic movies” is called “adult films”; “cohabitation” has become very common in western society. It is also called a kind of marriage: “trial marriage” or “unmarried wife”. Nevertheless， with the sharp increase of the rate of porce， there appeared many euphemisms for porce: “to break up”， “to split up， and “matchruptcy” (a blending of “match” and “bankruptcy”). And the homosexuality would be called “Greek arts”， “queer”， “gay”. There is another interesting phrase “to go to Reno”. “Reno”， a small city in the west of Nevada， is famous for its easy and fast procedures of porce. So “to go to Reno” also becomes a euphemism for porce.

3.1.5. The euphemisms for birth

Contrary to the Chinese traditional opinion， in western countries， “being pregnant” and “having a baby” are not considered “a blessed event”. Australian English even call it “a blasted event”. In America， “to wear the apron high”， “to wear/have the belly high” are euphemisms for “to be pregnant”， while in Britain， “to wear the bustle wrong” is a euphemism for “to be pregnant”. In 19th century， a slim waist is the ideal figure for British women. Therefore， “to be pregnant” is also called “to be awkward”， “in a bad way/shape”; “to make a woman pregnant” is called “to spoil/ruin a woman’s shape”. Some one even called “to be pregnant” “to be caught” or “to be fallen”. Some vague expressions also show a kind of restless mood， such as: that way， in a certain/particular/delicate condition etc. The use of humor is another feature of euphemism for “being pregnant”. American people are likely to say “to have a watermelon on the vine”， or “to swallow a watermelon seed”. British people are likely to say “to have a bun in the oven” or “to have an Irish toothache” (to make fun of Irish people who are pregnant as commonly as having a toothache).

3.2. Courtesy

Another reason to use euphemism is that it avoids the harsh and direct word in a polite way， and makes the sentence sound more pleasant. To grasp the polite function of euphemism can help you build a good relationship with others. The polite functions are especially reflected in the occupations， or trades. It relate with Politeness Principle of Leech[17]. It is obvious that advertisement is aimed at helping businessmen propaganda their goods， for the sake of soliciting customs. As a pleasant way， using euphemisms in advertisements has become more and more widespread. Now， “secondhand store” has been replaced by “resale store”， “super”， “giant”， “special”， such words， have become more popular. Moreover， we can often see the same phenomenon about the expressions for classes of cabins. To defend passengers ’honor， “First Class” is changed to “Deluxe Class”， “Second Class” is to “First Class”， “Third Class” to “Business Class”， and “Economic Class” to “Tourist Class”. This function undoubtly plays an active role of improving the progress of society:

3.2.1. The euphemism for the office and trade

For example， “mental hospital or mental health center” is a euphemism for “madhouse”; “mortuary or funeral” is a euphemism of dead house. Some small companies or small enterprises like to use the word “industry”， such as hotel industry， tourist industry， garage industry， women’s beauty industry etc.

3.2.2. The euphemism for occupation

In order to promote the social status of the occupation， almost every humble occupation has a sweet-sounding name. There are mainly two forms:

1). Compound. That is to choose some sweet-sounding occupational names to make up compound or compound phrases. For example， today we can find many occupations in America and Britain named with “engineer”: sanitary (or sanitation) engineer; building (custodian， dwelling) engineer; automobile engineer; dry cleaning engineer， pipe engineer; heating engineer; packing engineer; sales engineer; housewifedomestic engineer; the person who is in charge of killing mice and cockroachesexterminating(extermination) engineer. There are some other common titles: automotive repairmanautomotive internist; garden workerlandscape architect; prison guardcorrectional officer; pest-killerpest control operator; butchermeat technologist. Some humble occupations have many euphemistic names at the same time. For example， people often call “hair stylist” “tonsorial artist”， while people call “female hairdresser” “woman surgeon”; “undertaker” also has many expressions: bereavement counselor， grief therapist， funeral director， funeral service practitioner. Besides “engineer” housewife also can be called “household executive”， “homemaker”， even “domestic manager”; “Prostitute” also has many euphemisms， such as pavement princess， working girl， streetwalker， call girl， business girl etc.

2). Derivation. That is to choose some Latin and Greek prefixes whose meanings refer to “a person”， such as “-(o) logist”. “mixologist” is a euphemism for “a bar’s waiter”; dustman for garbologist; female hairdresser for cosmetologist; undertaker for mortician; cobbler for shoetrician; locksmith for locktician. Some special occupational names have adopted two prefixes. For example cosmetologist and cosmetician both refer to “female hairdresser”. Moreover， Latin prefix “-arian” is originally used in religion， but now it is also used in the occupation， such as: bartarian， sanitarian. Another Latin prefix “-ian” is also used popularly， such as custodian (entrance guard or dustman). Some people even want to change the native prefix “-er” to the Latin prefix “-or” because they think the foreign prefix is more elegant and sweet-sounding， such as weldor， wild animal trainor.

3.2.3. The euphemisms for the aged and weight

The age， especially a woman’s age is regarded as a sensitive privacy. And most of the western people are afraid of getting old， so they call “old people” “senior citizens”. ”old age” and “senility” can easily cause the fear of the old people. Some euphemistic expressions take the place of them， such as “getting on (in years)， past one’s prime， feeling one’s age， second childhood， a distinguished gentleman， a grande dame， third age”. The old people become “an elder statesman” or “old age pensioner” or even use initialing “OAP”. They are not “old” but “l(fā)ong-lived”. Old people’s home， of course， is not an ideal place for old men to live in. There are many euphemistic expressions: a home for adults， a nursing home， a rest home， a private hospital， a convalescent hospital. The old people who live there are called euphemistically “a resident”.

In western country， it is very impolite if you talk about someone’s figure and weight without reservation. If someone is “fat”， “overweight” is often used to replace it. “weight-watchers” is also a euphemism for “fat people”. To female， “a fat girl” is called “a fuller figure or plump”; to male， “fat” is called “stout”; to child， it is called “chubby”. On the contrary， if someone is too thin， euphemism is also used. To male， it is called “l(fā)ean”， and to female， it is called “slim， slender， willowy or svelte”.

3.2.4. The euphemisms for poverty and unemployment

The topic of poverty and unemployment might cause some embarrassment， so people often use euphemism when their talks concern such things. For example， “dismissal” is often called “l(fā)ay off， ease out， get the walking ticket/pink slip”; “bankruptcy” is called “out of the game”; “penniless” is called “out of pocket， in reduced circumstances， badly off， needy etc.”; “the poor people” is called “the have-nots， the underprivileged， the disadvantaged”; even their houses also have a sweet-sounding name-“substandard housing”. The euphemism for unemployment has many expressions. Most of them are humorous， such as “between jobs”， “between shows”， “to be developing a new project”， “to receive a Mexican raise/ an Irish promotion” (to raise a promotion without raising the salary)， “to be self-employed”. In America “unemployed men” are called “claimants”， while， in Britain， they are called “to be on public assistance”. Of course， some euphemisms are pessimistic: The British unemployed men can take 50 percent off the ticket of a film and a drama， so they also can be called “the less fortunate”.

3.2.5. The euphemisms for excretion

All words concerning “excretion” except tears are considered taboo words. The euphemisms for “l(fā)avatory” have many ways of expressions， such as water closet， cloakroom， comfort station， toilet (which is popular in Britain)， restroom (which is generally used in America). In America， “convenience station” is written English， while “bathroom” is oral English. “John” is slang， while “poet’s corner” is a crack joke. In Britain， they use “Jakes” instead of “John”. They use “public comfort station” instead of “public convenience station”. Men’s lavatory is called “Gent’s， the John， the washroom”; Women’s lavatory is called “Ladies’， the powder room， powder one’s nose (Br.); powder one’s puff (Am.); Mrs. Jones”. There are also many ways to express “urination” and “defecation”， such as， to go to the bathroom/ restroom/ powder room， to do one’s business， to answer nature’s call. .

There are other expressions. For instance， I have to retire for a moment. / I would like to be excused. Interrogative sentences can also be used: Where is the restroom? Where can I wash my hands? Ladies can say， “I’d like to add some makeup.” in order to avoid the awkwardness.

3.3. Disguise

Opposite to the positive influences of euphemism， there are some different sayings about it. Some people condemn euphemisms as demoralizing because of its hypocrisy while others like Hilaire Belloc consider them a ‘psychological necessity”[18]. One of the most important reasons is that euphemism is used to conceal some scandalous behaviors and crimes. Therefore， euphemism can also bring about the negative influences， which are embodied in the following two aspects according to its concealing function:

3.3.1. The euphemisms for the requirements of politics and war.

Because of the requirements of politics and war， the British and American politicians used some euphemisms to conceal the internal truth， and cheat the public. For example， the “Water Gate” is called “scenario” [19]. Some American writers criticized that these euphemisms created from the “Water Gate” were demoralizing and hypocritical. “Time” even said directly， “These euphemisms all tell it like it isn’t.” [20] The person who steals the information is called “plumber”; The person who is against government is often called “dissidents”; American and British people name “riot” as “disturbance” or “disorder”; “strike” is called “walk-out， down tools， industrial action or industrial dispute”; “economic crises” is called “recession” or “depression”. In the aspect of military affair， “the number of the dead” is called “body count”; “aggression” is called “pre-emptive action” or “involvement”; “rout” is called “phased withdrawal”、“strategic withdrawal”、“l(fā)ight and scattered action” or “break off contact with enemy”. The euphemisms for “to kill” are often called “to take care of， to dispose of， to remove， to rub out， to puff out， to put away， to touch off etc.” “U.S. overseas military employment” is called “American presence”; “civilian casualties” is called “collateral damage”; “bombing and blasting” is called “softening up the resistance”. People seldom mention “nuclear weapons”， but “an anti-personnel weapon”. “Non-nuclear weapon” is called “a conventional weapon”. American media called their invasion to Haiti by their marines “an incident”， called the investigation of American airplanes in Russian territorial air space “an over flight”. We can see the concealing function of euphemisms becomes the needs of the struggle， the tool of cheating people.

3.3.2. The euphemisms for crime

Crime is also a very sensitive topic. The judge can say， “I hereby sentence you to five years in prison.” While the families and friends of the criminal are likely to use the euphemistic expression， such as “to send to the big house， to send up the river， to be living at the government’s expense.” “juvenile delinquents” is a euphemism for “young criminals”; “prison” is called “correctional center”; “burglary” is called “surreptitious entry”; “rape” is called “criminal assault”; “the officer’s act of stealing or embezzling” is called “They misuse public funds.” “Death penalty” is called “capital punishment”.

3.4. The countries’ names as euphemism

In English， there is another special euphemistic expression. That is to use other countries’ names instead of some harsher or more offensive words. The appearance of these euphemisms is mostly because of the historic and cultural reasons. For instance， because French had ruled Britain， British people like to make fun of the French. They called “syphilis” “the French disease”. “French letter” is a euphemism for “condom”; “abortive pill” is called “French lunar pill”; “pornographic novels/prints” is called “French novels (prints)”. It seems that the French does all the bad things. In 17th century， the war between Britain and Dutch also led to a lot of anti-Dutch words， including euphemisms. “Prostitute” is called “Dutch widow”; “commit suicide” is called “Dutch act/cure”; “Dutch courage” is an “artificial courage”; “Dutch cheer” is a euphemism for “l(fā)iquor”. It was said that the Dutch often drank some liquor to build up their courage. Besides French and Dutch， Britain also makes fun of other countries. “Condom” has other euphemistic expressions in terms of country’s name， such as Spanish letter， American letter， and Italian letter. “Abortive pill” is also called “Portuguese female pill”; “Russian roulette” is a euphemism for “to intend to commit suicide”; “Mexican raise. Irish promotion” means “to be dismissed”; “Egyptian physical training” means “to sleep at daytime”; “Chinese” is also included in this usage， and it refers to a kind of “heroin”. “Chinese white” is a euphemism for “spirited heroin”; “Chinese red” also refers to “heroin”. In a word， the British and the American relate a lot of offensive things with other countries’ names. That is why “exotic” has the meaning of “erotic”. “Exotic club” became the “striptease night club”; “exotic dancer” became the “go-go dancer”. Besides English， other western countries also have such euphemistic phenomena. In fact， it is Linguistic Chauvinism.

4. Conclusion

Euphemism appears with false appearance， and exerts a subtle influence on exposing the truth. That is to use the neutral or pleasant words to express some awkward or offensive contents. As to the English learners， we should not only pay attention to its application on appropriate occasions， but to its influences. Its active functions can coordinate the interpersonal relationships， release the contradictions and avoid the conflicts. The negative functions are to confound right and wrong， beautify the shameful behaviors and conceal the essence. Language itself has not the class character， but different people， political parties and countries can consider it a tool to serve for them. That is why someone named euphemisms as “comfortable words” or “cosmetic words”. In daily life， we should pay attention to the influences that the active and negative functions of euphemisms bring us， and keep the negative functions from corrupting our thoughts.

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篇6

［關(guān)鍵詞］微課程;大學(xué)英語;設(shè)計(jì)與應(yīng)用

新技術(shù)的快速發(fā)展在教育領(lǐng)域引發(fā)了一系列的變革，大學(xué)英語課堂正需要打破傳統(tǒng)格局，建立一種新型的高效、便捷、輕松的教育和學(xué)習(xí)模式，而微課程的出現(xiàn)和發(fā)展為提高大學(xué)英語課堂效率提供了契機(jī)。本文通過對(duì)微課程的特點(diǎn)和優(yōu)勢(shì)進(jìn)行分析，探索了微課程在大學(xué)英語教學(xué)中的設(shè)計(jì)和應(yīng)用的新途徑。

一、大學(xué)英語的教學(xué)現(xiàn)狀

通常情況下，學(xué)生在高中畢業(yè)時(shí)已進(jìn)行了十多年的英語學(xué)習(xí)，在詞匯和語法上有了相當(dāng)程度上的積累，對(duì)于基本的英語語法和語言知識(shí)有了一定的掌握，已經(jīng)具備了基本的聽說讀寫的能力，因此，當(dāng)學(xué)生進(jìn)入大學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)，如果大學(xué)英語教學(xué)模式依然延續(xù)高中圍繞英語詞匯和語法進(jìn)行的英語教學(xué)模式來展開，將很難滿足當(dāng)今知識(shí)技術(shù)日益革新的社會(huì)對(duì)于大學(xué)畢業(yè)生的基本要求。同時(shí)，在大學(xué)英語教學(xué)實(shí)踐中發(fā)現(xiàn)，不同專業(yè)的大學(xué)生英語學(xué)習(xí)的特點(diǎn)不同，大學(xué)英語課程需要考慮到不同專業(yè)學(xué)生的需求，這對(duì)授課教師的專業(yè)特長和學(xué)術(shù)能力，以及教材的選擇方面提出了很大的挑戰(zhàn)。而此時(shí)，微課的出現(xiàn)以其本身的特點(diǎn)和優(yōu)勢(shì)，為創(chuàng)建大學(xué)英語教學(xué)的新模式提供了條件。

二、微課程教學(xué)模式的理論探索

1．微課程的定義

關(guān)于微課程的涵義，國內(nèi)外專家沒有一個(gè)確切統(tǒng)一的說法。美國戴維•彭羅斯將微課程稱為“知識(shí)脈沖(KnowledgeBurst)”，它與相關(guān)討論與課后練習(xí)聯(lián)系起來，會(huì)取得與傳統(tǒng)長時(shí)間授課模式相同的教學(xué)效果。總結(jié)國內(nèi)外觀點(diǎn)，微課程的定義是指按照新課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及教學(xué)實(shí)踐要求，以教學(xué)視頻為主要載體，錄制時(shí)長大約5～10分鐘的有關(guān)教學(xué)重難點(diǎn)、考點(diǎn)、疑點(diǎn)等的簡短視頻，反映教師在課堂教學(xué)過程中針對(duì)某個(gè)知識(shí)點(diǎn)或教學(xué)環(huán)節(jié)而開展教與學(xué)活動(dòng)的各種教學(xué)資源有機(jī)組合。這種微視頻的反復(fù)使用，不但可以滿足大學(xué)生們個(gè)性化的需求，而且對(duì)教師們相互交流教學(xué)資源也大有裨益。

2．微課程的特點(diǎn)

作為一種新興的現(xiàn)代教學(xué)模式，微課程與日益更新的電子信息技術(shù)結(jié)合，實(shí)現(xiàn)了教育技術(shù)和媒體資源的共享，具有短小精悍，重點(diǎn)突出，針對(duì)性強(qiáng)，制作簡單，使用靈活方便等特點(diǎn)。首先，微課程的時(shí)間較短，時(shí)長約為5～10分鐘，下載保存方便，可以使學(xué)生利用零散的時(shí)間進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)，方便學(xué)生在注意力相對(duì)集中的時(shí)間內(nèi)高效率地學(xué)習(xí)。其次，微課程教學(xué)主題明確，內(nèi)容精細(xì)。微課通常是針對(duì)某個(gè)特定的知識(shí)點(diǎn)而展開的，內(nèi)容精煉，針對(duì)性強(qiáng)，方便學(xué)生理解和掌握。第三，微課程的教學(xué)模式有助于學(xué)生自主學(xué)習(xí)能力的提高，增加師生間的互動(dòng)交流。學(xué)生可以不限時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)反復(fù)地使用微課視頻進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)，教師能夠準(zhǔn)確掌握學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的不足，針對(duì)性地進(jìn)行輔導(dǎo)，極大地提高了學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的成就感和自信心。此外，微課程還有制作簡單、生動(dòng)有趣，以及方便教師交流等特點(diǎn)，這就使得微課教學(xué)迅速地風(fēng)靡全世界。

3．微課程在大學(xué)英語教學(xué)應(yīng)用中體現(xiàn)出的優(yōu)勢(shì)

傳統(tǒng)的英語教學(xué)模式主要是以教師講授為主，知識(shí)多且繁雜，學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)中處于被動(dòng)狀態(tài)，注意力很難集中。微課程這種全新的教學(xué)模式不僅可以讓師生共同參與，體驗(yàn)微課教學(xué)模式的優(yōu)勢(shì)，而且可以促使教師在教學(xué)過程中不斷完善教學(xué)方式。微課程在大學(xué)英語教學(xué)中較之于傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)模式有很大的優(yōu)勢(shì)，具體體現(xiàn)在以下幾個(gè)方面:第一，教學(xué)內(nèi)容更加精煉，更有針對(duì)性。微課視頻的內(nèi)容都是教師根據(jù)整體的教學(xué)大綱進(jìn)行整理、歸納剔除了冗長多余的內(nèi)容后濃縮的精華，具備很強(qiáng)的代表性，能夠在很大程度上提高學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語的效率。第二，教師與學(xué)生的互動(dòng)性大大提升。借助微課平臺(tái)，學(xué)生可以隨時(shí)隨地就視頻中的難點(diǎn)和問題與教師進(jìn)行線上的交流與互動(dòng)，方便教師及時(shí)解決學(xué)生的問題，糾正口語上的錯(cuò)誤，這在一定程度上提高了學(xué)生的英語水平。第三，解除了傳統(tǒng)英語課堂對(duì)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的時(shí)空限制。傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)主要局限于課堂，微課教學(xué)模式使學(xué)習(xí)的地點(diǎn)不再受到限制，教師在完成微課視頻的制作后將視頻上傳到網(wǎng)絡(luò)，而學(xué)生則可以隨時(shí)隨地用電腦或手機(jī)學(xué)習(xí)到英語知識(shí)。

三、微課程教學(xué)模式在大學(xué)英語教學(xué)中的設(shè)計(jì)與應(yīng)用

1．微課教學(xué)視頻的收集與制作

在制作微視頻前，教師首先要先明確教學(xué)內(nèi)容和目標(biāo)，要結(jié)合學(xué)生實(shí)際的學(xué)習(xí)能力和水平圍繞教學(xué)主題來設(shè)計(jì)微課教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)方案。在確定主題后，要收集與主題相關(guān)的素材來完善教學(xué)方案，收集的素材可以包括圖片、視頻和影視資料等，然后將資源進(jìn)行整合歸納，盡可能更多地突出教學(xué)內(nèi)容的重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)，剔除冗長多余的內(nèi)容，制作出少于20分鐘的視頻。教師在制作ppt時(shí)要注意設(shè)計(jì)簡單明了，編排有序，片頭要呈現(xiàn)出微課主要信息，前幾十秒的時(shí)間做情景導(dǎo)入，最好伴有幾個(gè)啟發(fā)式的問題以激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣，引起學(xué)生的思考。教師在制作視頻時(shí)，需將短小精悍的微課程視頻做到內(nèi)容精煉，生動(dòng)有趣，這樣才能達(dá)到最佳教學(xué)效果。微課視頻的時(shí)長雖然短少，但不能因此而降低視頻的教學(xué)質(zhì)量。

2．課前視頻的

教師在編輯視頻時(shí)盡量使用比較常見的視頻格式，避免學(xué)生視頻無法接收的情況，也便于學(xué)生下載觀看。同時(shí)，還要添加一些與課程相關(guān)的重點(diǎn)批注和講解，以及視頻相關(guān)的課后作業(yè)等，布置的課后作業(yè)要圍繞著微課視頻的教學(xué)重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)，這樣有助于學(xué)生熟練地運(yùn)用微課程所學(xué)的內(nèi)容，同時(shí)又要帶有啟發(fā)性，能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的興趣。在微課程開始之前，要指導(dǎo)學(xué)生按照微課程的教學(xué)任務(wù)進(jìn)行課前預(yù)習(xí)，只有這樣才能在課堂上達(dá)到良好的學(xué)習(xí)效果。

3．課堂的教學(xué)活動(dòng)

課堂教學(xué)中，學(xué)生不再是被動(dòng)地接受教學(xué)知識(shí)，而是主動(dòng)地參與到課程的學(xué)習(xí)中，有目的、有針對(duì)性地學(xué)習(xí)，微課程的優(yōu)勢(shì)就在于能夠利用圖片、影像、聲音、文本等多種方式來刺激學(xué)生視覺、聽覺、觸覺、感覺等多種感官，將原本枯燥無趣的書本知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橐粋€(gè)生動(dòng)、形象的學(xué)習(xí)場景，從而達(dá)到激發(fā)學(xué)生潛能，迅速掌握課文內(nèi)容的效果。教師可利用微課教學(xué)資源，進(jìn)行“看圖說話”或“看圖配音”等情景活動(dòng)，使課堂變得生動(dòng)有趣，提升學(xué)生在情景中靈活運(yùn)用語言的能力，增加學(xué)生對(duì)英語學(xué)習(xí)的興趣，還要針對(duì)學(xué)生的特點(diǎn)，進(jìn)行個(gè)性化教學(xué)。教師可以在視頻之外補(bǔ)充板書、flash、word文檔等其他形式的教學(xué)方式，也可以留給學(xué)生適當(dāng)?shù)臅r(shí)間進(jìn)行小組討論，教師從旁輔助指導(dǎo)。教師可以針對(duì)微課平臺(tái)上學(xué)生的疑難問題有針對(duì)性地講解，找到學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)中的薄弱之處，提升課堂教學(xué)的效率。

4．課后總結(jié)與互動(dòng)交流

在微課教學(xué)結(jié)束后，學(xué)生可以就課堂上沒有弄懂的問題在微課程平臺(tái)上與教師進(jìn)行在線咨詢，不但可以更扎實(shí)地掌握課堂所學(xué)內(nèi)容，同時(shí)也提升了學(xué)生的反思和總結(jié)能力。而教師則要注意觀察學(xué)生微課任務(wù)的完成情況，以觀測(cè)學(xué)生在大學(xué)英語微課教學(xué)中的實(shí)際效果，當(dāng)然教師可以建立一個(gè)學(xué)生微課程視頻學(xué)習(xí)情況一覽表，并不定期地對(duì)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)視頻的情況進(jìn)行摸底考察，這樣可以有效地督促某些自律性差的學(xué)生，并將學(xué)習(xí)情況進(jìn)行分析總結(jié)，建立有針對(duì)性的微課教學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)情況數(shù)據(jù)庫，及時(shí)有針對(duì)性地對(duì)這部分學(xué)生輔助指導(dǎo)，督促學(xué)生進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)方法的合理調(diào)整。教師也可通過調(diào)查問卷等方式了解學(xué)生的需求，邀請(qǐng)學(xué)生也參與到微課程的設(shè)計(jì)當(dāng)中，在線對(duì)微課程的設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)表觀點(diǎn)和意見，教師可以根據(jù)學(xué)生課堂表現(xiàn)、聽課效果反饋和學(xué)生意見進(jìn)行總結(jié)反思，修改微課程的設(shè)計(jì)方案，使微課程的學(xué)習(xí)更加貼近學(xué)生的需要，從而達(dá)到事半功倍的效果。

綜上所述，在大學(xué)英語課堂中使用微課教學(xué)模式是可行的，這一教學(xué)模式可以有效提高該課程的教學(xué)效率，彌補(bǔ)傳統(tǒng)課堂教學(xué)的不足之處。這使學(xué)生成為學(xué)習(xí)的主體，調(diào)動(dòng)了學(xué)生的主觀能動(dòng)性，激發(fā)了學(xué)生對(duì)大學(xué)英語教學(xué)的學(xué)習(xí)興趣，并推動(dòng)個(gè)性化學(xué)習(xí)真正應(yīng)用于教學(xué)實(shí)踐。微課程教學(xué)模式在大學(xué)英語教學(xué)中的設(shè)計(jì)與應(yīng)用具有很強(qiáng)的實(shí)踐性和先進(jìn)性，雖然在我國還處于初步探索階段，但是隨著對(duì)微課程教學(xué)的深入探討和研究，必將促進(jìn)我國大學(xué)英語教學(xué)水平更上新臺(tái)階。

作者:馬文佳 單位:佳木斯大學(xué)

［參考文獻(xiàn)］

［1］李季．基于微課程教學(xué)模式下的大學(xué)英語教學(xué)策略研究［J］．海外英語，2015(12):49－53．

［2］閆易乾．微課程在大學(xué)英語教學(xué)中的應(yīng)用［J］．教改探索，2015(8):68．

［3］歐陽志群．微課對(duì)大學(xué)英語教學(xué)改革的啟示［J］．高教學(xué)刊，2015(15):85－88．

［4］仇慧．基于翻轉(zhuǎn)課堂模式下的大學(xué)英語教學(xué)的研究———以中國文化課程為例［D］．東北石油大學(xué)，2014．

篇7

During the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 B.C.), Duke Xian of the State of Jin Killed the crown prince Sheng because he had heard slanders1 about Sheng and believed them. He also sent his men to arrest Chong Er, Shen Sheng and believed them. He also sent his men to arrest Chonh Er, Shen Sheng's brother. Hearing the news, Chong Er escaped from the state of Jin, remaining a fugitive2 for more than ten years.

After innumerable hardships, Chong Er arrived at the State of Chu at last. King Cheng of the State of Chu treated him with high respect as he would have treated the ruler of a state, believing that he would have a vright fuure.

One day, King Cheng of the State of Chu gave a banquet in honoudr of Chong Er. Suddenly, amid the harmonious3 atmosphere of drinking and talking, King Cheng of the State of Chu asked Chong Er. "How will you repay me when you return to the State of Jin and become its ruler one day?" After thinking for a moment, Chong Er said, "You have plenty of beauties and attendants as well as jewelry4 and silk cloth, and the state of Chu abounds5 in rare brides and animals. What treasure can the State of Jin boast having to present to your majesty6?" King Cheng of the State of Chu said, "You are too modest. Nevertheless, you still have to show your gratitude7 to me in one way or another, I presume?" Smiling, Chong Er answered, "If I should be fortunate enouge to return to the State of Jin and become its ruler, the State of Jin would be friendly to the State of Chu. If, one day, there should be a war between the two states, I would definitely order my troops to retreat three SHE (one SHE is equivalent to thirty LI. The LI is a Chinese unit of length equivalent to 1/2 kilometre. And, therefore, three SHE is about thirty miles.) as a condition for peace. If, under that condition, you were still not reconciled, I would have to fight with you."

Four years later, as might be expected, Chong Er returned to the State of Jin and became its ruler. He was none other than Duke Wen of the State of Jin famous in ancient Chinese history. Ruled by him, the State of Jin became increasingly powerful.

In the year 533 B.C., the Chu troops and the Jin troops confronted each other in a battle. Faithful to his promise, Duke Wen of the State of Jin ordered his troops to retreat about thirty miles. After retreating, the Jin troops were stationed at Chengpu. Seeing that the Jin troops were retreating, the Chu troops thought that the enemy troops were afraid, and began chasing them. Taking advantage of the Chu troops' arrogance8 and their talking the Jin troops lightly, the Jin troops concentrated their forces and inflicted9 a crushing defeat on the Chu troops, thus winning the victory of the battle of Chengpu.

This set phrase, "retreating about thirty miles as a condition for peace," is derived10 from the Chapter "The Twenty-second Year of Duke Xi" in ZuoZhuan, the famous commentary by Zuo Qiuming on The spring and Autumn Annals. The idea of this set phrase is to give way to somebody in order to avoid a conflict.

春秋時(shí)候，晉獻(xiàn)公聽信讒言，殺了太子申生，又派人捉拿申生的弟弟重耳。重耳聞?dòng)?，逃出了晉國，在外流忘十幾年。

經(jīng)過千幸萬苦,重耳來到楚國。楚成王認(rèn)為重耳日后必有大作為，就以國群之禮相迎，待他如上賓。

一天，楚王設(shè)宴招待重耳，兩人飲灑敘話，氣氛十分融洽。忽然楚王問重耳：“你若有一天回晉國當(dāng)上國君，該怎么報(bào)答我呢？”重耳略一思索說：“美女待從、珍寶絲綢，大王您有的是，珍禽羽毛，象牙獸皮，更是楚地的盛產(chǎn)，晉國哪有什么珍奇物品獻(xiàn)給大王呢？”楚王說：“公子過謙了。話雖然這么說，可總該對(duì)我有所表示吧？”重耳笑笑回答道：“要是托您的福。果真能回國當(dāng)政的話，我愿與貴國友好。假如有一天，晉楚國之間發(fā)生戰(zhàn)爭，我一定命令軍隊(duì)先退避三舍（一舍等于三十里），如果還不能得到您的原諒，我再與您交戰(zhàn)。”

四年后，重耳真的回到晉國當(dāng)了國君，就是歷史上有名的晉文公。晉國在他的治理下日益強(qiáng)大。

篇8

關(guān)鍵詞：導(dǎo)學(xué)案；設(shè)計(jì)；應(yīng)用

中圖分類號(hào)：G632文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼：B文章編號(hào)：1672-1578（2015）06-0125-01

"導(dǎo)學(xué)案"是一種理念的轉(zhuǎn)變。它強(qiáng)調(diào)了"學(xué)"而不是強(qiáng)調(diào)"教"，強(qiáng)調(diào)學(xué)習(xí)什么，怎么去學(xué)。導(dǎo)學(xué)案以單元整體設(shè)計(jì)為指導(dǎo)思想，由單元中的SectionA和SectionB加上Reading部分組成，每個(gè)Section分為導(dǎo)學(xué)與固學(xué)兩部分，導(dǎo)學(xué)部分由學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)、課前預(yù)習(xí)、學(xué)法指導(dǎo)組成，教師精心設(shè)計(jì)，注重導(dǎo)引，讓學(xué)生的學(xué)路與教師的教路有效磨合，助推著學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)力的提升；固學(xué)部分由基礎(chǔ)性知識(shí)、規(guī)律性知識(shí)和拓展性知識(shí)組成，讓優(yōu)等生看到挑戰(zhàn)，中等生感到激勵(lì)，學(xué)困生備受鼓勵(lì)。導(dǎo)學(xué)案的設(shè)計(jì)依據(jù)《義務(wù)教育英語課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)》（2011年版），體現(xiàn)三維目標(biāo)，即"知識(shí)與技能"、"過程與方法"、"情感、態(tài)度與價(jià)值觀"的有機(jī)統(tǒng)一，融為一體。

閱讀課是初中教學(xué)的棘手課，開課教師在選課時(shí)都想避開。為了突破老師們的心理障礙，我們挑選了這樣的課型進(jìn)行研修。

1.學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)的制定

學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)的制定對(duì)具體的學(xué)習(xí)行為起導(dǎo)向、引領(lǐng)的作用，是教學(xué)評(píng)價(jià)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和依據(jù)。學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)的制定堅(jiān)持主體性、操作性和層次性原則。主體性即從學(xué)生的角度出發(fā)，體現(xiàn)生本；操作性即目標(biāo)具體、明確、可測(cè)量、可評(píng)價(jià)；層次性即目標(biāo)的設(shè)置重視差異和學(xué)情，體現(xiàn)因材施教。我們的學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)由知識(shí)目標(biāo)、能力目標(biāo)和情感目標(biāo)組成。以新目標(biāo)英語八年級(jí)（下）Unit 9 Reading：Have you ever been to Singapore？為例，本課詞匯量大，對(duì)學(xué)生的要求也高，我們?cè)谥R(shí)目標(biāo)中把詞匯分為核心詞匯和詞匯兩部分，核心詞匯是學(xué)生必須掌握和應(yīng)用的詞匯，它們?cè)诠虒W(xué)中出現(xiàn)率高，寫作中也會(huì)用上，出現(xiàn)在詞匯中的單詞或詞組按學(xué)生的程度有的只要求會(huì)認(rèn)讀，會(huì)理解，在固學(xué)中出現(xiàn)時(shí)能查閱完成。能力目標(biāo)也分層要求分層達(dá)標(biāo)。（見附件導(dǎo)學(xué)）

2.課前預(yù)習(xí)設(shè)計(jì)

導(dǎo)學(xué)案的有效應(yīng)用是促進(jìn)課堂教學(xué)順利進(jìn)行的重要途徑和方法之一，在整個(gè)教學(xué)中具有強(qiáng)大的支架功能和作用。建構(gòu)主義認(rèn)為，當(dāng)學(xué)習(xí)者遇到較復(fù)雜的學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)時(shí)，教師應(yīng)為其提供一種概念框架（conceptual framework），將復(fù)雜的學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)加以分解，引導(dǎo)學(xué)習(xí)者對(duì)所學(xué)知識(shí)的理解不斷深入，促進(jìn)學(xué)習(xí)者知識(shí)意義的建構(gòu)和相關(guān)能力的形成和發(fā)展。導(dǎo)學(xué)案就是這種概念框架，即教學(xué)支架的表現(xiàn)形式之一。教師在教學(xué)中就是要循序漸進(jìn)，引導(dǎo)學(xué)生沿著這一支架逐步攀升，不斷實(shí)現(xiàn)并創(chuàng)造新的"最近發(fā)展區(qū)"。所以教師在課前預(yù)習(xí)中堅(jiān)持問題化、層次化原則。所設(shè)的問題沒有把謎底一下端給學(xué)生而是巧妙地把知識(shí)點(diǎn)、能力點(diǎn)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)樘剿餍缘膯栴}點(diǎn)，問題看似與課文相關(guān)又有所拓展，從而激發(fā)學(xué)生主動(dòng)思考，逐步培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的探究精神以及對(duì)教材的分析、歸納、演繹的能力，使學(xué)生意識(shí)到：要解決教師設(shè)計(jì)的問題不看書不行，看書不看詳細(xì)也不行；光看書不思考不行，思考不深不透也不行。讓學(xué)生真正從教師設(shè)計(jì)的問題中找到解決問題的方法，學(xué)會(huì)看書，學(xué)會(huì)自學(xué)。層次性原則即將難易不一的學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容處理成有序的、階梯性的、符合各層次學(xué)生認(rèn)知規(guī)律的課前預(yù)習(xí)，讓每個(gè)學(xué)生都學(xué)有所得，最大限度地調(diào)動(dòng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)積極性，提高學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的自信心。

3.學(xué)法指導(dǎo)的設(shè)計(jì)

學(xué)法指導(dǎo)與課前預(yù)習(xí)具有異曲同工之處。主要是溫故知新，即以學(xué)生已有的知識(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)作為切入點(diǎn)實(shí)現(xiàn)以舊引新的目標(biāo)。應(yīng)用聯(lián)想、分類、問題等形式激活學(xué)生的求知欲；針對(duì)重難點(diǎn)詞匯、語法等的辨析、解析；預(yù)測(cè)并提供固學(xué)中需要應(yīng)用的詞匯、句子等。（見附件導(dǎo)學(xué)）此外，提倡在學(xué)法指導(dǎo)中提供一些好記好用好學(xué)的"口訣"或"順口溜"幫助學(xué)生記憶所學(xué)的內(nèi)容，掃清學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)中的攔路虎。

4.固學(xué)部分的設(shè)計(jì)

固學(xué)部分是落實(shí)知識(shí)的重要保障，是將課堂的教學(xué)活動(dòng)內(nèi)化為學(xué)生自己的知識(shí)和能力的關(guān)鍵性環(huán)節(jié)，對(duì)課堂教學(xué)起檢測(cè)、反撥作用。主要由基礎(chǔ)性知識(shí)、規(guī)律性知識(shí)和拓展性知識(shí)組成。基礎(chǔ)性知識(shí)為學(xué)生自主學(xué)習(xí)掌握理解的單詞、詞組；規(guī)律性知識(shí)為需要通過訓(xùn)練進(jìn)行掌握和鞏固的句型、語法、段落；拓展性知識(shí)為需要思考探究的篇章和大小作文，有閱讀文的話可以選擇主題類似或結(jié)構(gòu)相似的文章讓學(xué)生進(jìn)行擴(kuò)展閱讀訓(xùn)練。（見附件固學(xué)）固學(xué)是導(dǎo)學(xué)的推進(jìn)器，將課堂的短時(shí)記憶轉(zhuǎn)化為長時(shí)記憶，將課前課內(nèi)的思考延伸、升華為課外的思考，并及時(shí)進(jìn)行有針對(duì)性的反饋與矯正。

5.應(yīng)該注意的問題

義務(wù)教育《英語課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)》（2011年版）實(shí)施建議中指出：本標(biāo)準(zhǔn)以學(xué)生"能用英語做事情"的描述方式設(shè)定各級(jí)目標(biāo)要求，旨在強(qiáng)調(diào)培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的綜合語言運(yùn)用能力。各種語言知識(shí)的呈現(xiàn)和學(xué)習(xí)都應(yīng)從語言使用的角度出發(fā)，為提升學(xué)生 "用英語做事情"的能力服務(wù)。教師要通過創(chuàng)設(shè)接近實(shí)際生活的各種語境，采用循序漸進(jìn)的語言實(shí)踐活動(dòng)，以及各種強(qiáng)調(diào)過程與結(jié)果并重的教學(xué)途徑和方法，如任務(wù)型語言教學(xué)途徑等，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生用英語做事情的能力?？梢娫趯W(xué)生的語言學(xué)習(xí)和實(shí)踐活動(dòng)中，教師的作用十分重要。英語教學(xué)目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn)，并非一個(gè)導(dǎo)學(xué)案能夠全部解決的，特別是創(chuàng)設(shè)接近實(shí)際生活的各種語境并用英語獲取、處理和傳遞信息，表達(dá)個(gè)人觀點(diǎn)和感受，是一項(xiàng)實(shí)踐性很強(qiáng)的活動(dòng)，教師必要的點(diǎn)撥、指導(dǎo)、示范，師生互動(dòng)、生生互動(dòng)都應(yīng)當(dāng)是重要的教學(xué)形式。

導(dǎo)學(xué)案建構(gòu)了以學(xué)生為中心，教師為主導(dǎo)的教學(xué)方式，避免了盲目使用資料和題海戰(zhàn)術(shù)，使教學(xué)更具針對(duì)性、有效性，突出重點(diǎn)，提高課堂教學(xué)效率，從而達(dá)到減負(fù)提質(zhì)的效果；導(dǎo)學(xué)案不僅調(diào)動(dòng)了學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的主動(dòng)性，讓學(xué)生學(xué)會(huì)了學(xué)習(xí)，同時(shí)也促進(jìn)教師的專業(yè)發(fā)展，催生了學(xué)科教學(xué)研究共同體，形成學(xué)科教學(xué)文化和精神，推動(dòng)了學(xué)校的發(fā)展。我們將在實(shí)踐中不斷反思、不斷地豐富和完善。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1]中華人民共和國教育部制定. 義務(wù)教育英語課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（2011年版）[M].北京：北京師范大學(xué)出版社，2012.1

篇9

關(guān)鍵詞： 英語課堂 活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì) 活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)例子

隨著英語在我國甚乎全球的日益廣泛使用，英語教育無疑已成為我國教育的重點(diǎn)之一，小至牙牙學(xué)語的小朋友，大至在校接受高等教育的學(xué)生、在職工作人員甚至于退休人員，都成為英語培訓(xùn)及教育的對(duì)象。然而，傳統(tǒng)的學(xué)校教育方式使英語學(xué)習(xí)成為眾多學(xué)習(xí)者心理的痛。以教師為中心、說教式為主要教學(xué)方法、應(yīng)試為主要目標(biāo)的英語教育方式忽略了英語作為一種語言的溝通功能性，因此正受到社會(huì)一步步的淘汰。對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)英語的方式提出了更高的要求。身處英語培訓(xùn)行業(yè)的我更加深刻了解到英語課堂活動(dòng)多樣性、趣味性，以及以學(xué)生為中心的重要性。因此，根據(jù)多年的英語學(xué)習(xí)及英語教學(xué)經(jīng)驗(yàn)，針對(duì)英語課堂上英語活動(dòng)的設(shè)計(jì)做出梳理及總結(jié)。此文將從英語活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的原則及活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的方式兩個(gè)方面進(jìn)行剖析，并舉具體的活動(dòng)例子深化說明。

一、英語課堂上英語活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的原則

1.活動(dòng)主體及客體的匹配

活動(dòng)的主體即學(xué)生，客體就是活動(dòng)的內(nèi)容及形式。我們?cè)谠O(shè)計(jì)活動(dòng)的內(nèi)容及形式時(shí)，必須首先考慮學(xué)生的年齡、知識(shí)水平、需求、認(rèn)知能力等各方面因素，進(jìn)行主體及客體間的匹配。沒有調(diào)研過主體的各方面因素，無論活動(dòng)內(nèi)容設(shè)計(jì)得如何豐富、整體思路如何完美，都不能稱之為成功的活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，因此此原則為基礎(chǔ)原則。

2.課堂上英語活動(dòng)的適時(shí)性

適時(shí)性包括課堂上英語活動(dòng)合適的頻率及每個(gè)活動(dòng)合適的時(shí)長。課堂上的英語學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)間往往是有限的。一般來說為45分鐘—90分鐘為一個(gè)課堂學(xué)習(xí)單位，因此在設(shè)計(jì)活動(dòng)的時(shí)候必須考慮到其所需時(shí)間及適合的頻率。課堂上活動(dòng)頻率過密或時(shí)間過長都會(huì)影響學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的有效性。

3.根據(jù)活動(dòng)目的進(jìn)行必要的知識(shí)補(bǔ)充

英語課堂上活動(dòng)的目的大致可以分為以下幾類：通過活動(dòng)了解新的學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容或方法、通過活動(dòng)實(shí)踐并練習(xí)已學(xué)過的內(nèi)容及方法、通過活動(dòng)對(duì)已有的學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容及方法進(jìn)行溫習(xí)并鞏固。無論是哪種目標(biāo)，在進(jìn)行活動(dòng)之前或之后，都需要有一些相關(guān)知識(shí)的補(bǔ)充及輸入，或是背景知識(shí)介紹，或是學(xué)習(xí)方法的概括和總結(jié)，或一些協(xié)助學(xué)生進(jìn)行活動(dòng)的補(bǔ)充材料。針對(duì)比較程度較低的學(xué)生，這些補(bǔ)充材料最好以書面的形式加以呈現(xiàn)。

二、英語課堂上英語活動(dòng)的設(shè)計(jì)——例子

為了更好闡述英語課堂上英語活動(dòng)的設(shè)計(jì)，我列舉兩個(gè)實(shí)例，并從目的、對(duì)象、時(shí)間、具體方式等方面向大家介紹，并對(duì)活動(dòng)的效果進(jìn)行總結(jié)及分析。

活動(dòng)一：

語言目標(biāo)：if真實(shí)條件句的學(xué)習(xí)

目的：讓學(xué)生掌握if真實(shí)條件句的句式，并加以應(yīng)用

對(duì)象：初級(jí)水平學(xué)生

人數(shù)：10人或以上

時(shí)間：約15分鐘

步驟：

1.向?qū)W生介紹if真實(shí)條件句之句式：if+一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)，主句+一般將來時(shí)。

2.教師舉完整例子，如If it doesn’t rain tomorrow，I will go shopping with my mom.

3.教師舉半完整例子，并讓學(xué)生填充，如：

If my friend comes see me tomorrow，I will ·搖·搖·搖 ·搖·搖·搖·搖.

The teacher will be happy if ·搖·搖·搖·搖·搖 ·搖·搖.

4.學(xué)生舉完整例子，并邀請(qǐng)若干學(xué)生口頭或在黑板上寫下句子。

5.If真實(shí)條件句接龍：教師確定學(xué)生已基本掌握句式用法后，將學(xué)生分成小組，5~10人每組，進(jìn)行句子接龍，前一個(gè)同學(xué)的后半個(gè)句子必須是下一個(gè)同學(xué)的上半個(gè)句子，具體如下。

學(xué)生一：If it doesn’t rain tomorrow，I will go shopping.

學(xué)生二：I will go shopping tomorrow if my best friend goes with me.

學(xué)生三：If my best friend goes with me，I won’t bring any money ...

如此類推，只要有一個(gè)同學(xué)犯錯(cuò)，如時(shí)態(tài)錯(cuò)誤或單詞發(fā)音不準(zhǔn)確或所接句子不完整，就必須重新開始，但時(shí)間不重新計(jì)算。最快完成的小組勝利。

三、活動(dòng)實(shí)況回顧

此活動(dòng)整體來說是較為成功的，學(xué)生基本掌握了if真實(shí)條件句的句式及用法，并能夠針對(duì)自身的情況進(jìn)行運(yùn)用，與此同時(shí)，接龍游戲的設(shè)計(jì)大大活躍了課堂氣氛，使絕大部分的同學(xué)積極參與其中，用游戲及競賽的方式增強(qiáng)了語法學(xué)習(xí)的趣味性。盡管如此，本次活動(dòng)還有美中不足的地方，由于舉行活動(dòng)的班級(jí)人數(shù)較多，約35人，因此整個(gè)活動(dòng)耗時(shí)超過了原定的15分鐘，耗時(shí)大約25分鐘。由于人數(shù)過多，進(jìn)行到活動(dòng)后半部分的時(shí)候，許多學(xué)生已經(jīng)難以集中精力聆聽其他學(xué)生的句子，課堂上出現(xiàn)稍微混亂的局面。

在進(jìn)行此活動(dòng)時(shí)，人數(shù)的控制是其中一個(gè)難點(diǎn)，過少學(xué)生難以進(jìn)行競賽，過多的學(xué)生難以控制時(shí)間及局面，所以最好針對(duì)學(xué)生的數(shù)量對(duì)活動(dòng)進(jìn)行調(diào)整，并對(duì)整體耗時(shí)進(jìn)行監(jiān)控。這就體現(xiàn)了活動(dòng)主體及客體的匹配及課堂上英語活動(dòng)的適時(shí)性原則。

活動(dòng)二：

活動(dòng)名稱：Mix and Match

針對(duì)課程：閱讀

目的：增加學(xué)生閱讀的參與性及自主性，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生概括及描述能力，增強(qiáng)邏輯思考能力；與此同時(shí)提高學(xué)生口語概括能力。

對(duì)象：中/高水平學(xué)生

人數(shù)：6~8人或以上

時(shí)間：30~45分鐘（取決于閱讀材料的難易程度及學(xué)生的參與度）

篇10

英語課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)是學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)和掌握英語的主要途徑，其優(yōu)劣程度直接關(guān)系到學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)效果的好壞，從而影響著英語教學(xué)目的的實(shí)現(xiàn)。因此，為了達(dá)到教學(xué)的最優(yōu)化效果，必須要求教師事先精心設(shè)計(jì)好課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)，體現(xiàn)出教學(xué)的科學(xué)性、藝術(shù)性與實(shí)用性。

1.英語課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)是順利完成課堂教學(xué)目的，提高課堂教學(xué)效果的需要?！胺彩骂A(yù)則立，不預(yù)則廢”教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)是整個(gè)教學(xué)工作中不可或缺的重要環(huán)節(jié)。教師要依據(jù)教學(xué)大綱的要求、教材的具體內(nèi)容、語言的學(xué)習(xí)規(guī)律、學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)水平和已達(dá)到的語言能力程度，對(duì)課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)深入構(gòu)思、精心設(shè)計(jì)、整體把握、合理布局，研究和掌握科學(xué)的教學(xué)原則，使用諸如教育學(xué)、心理學(xué)等理論，始終貫穿于英語課堂教學(xué)的每個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)中，并正確合理采用具體實(shí)施方法，比如小組活動(dòng)(Group Work 或Pair Work)、話題的選擇(Topic Choice)、表演(Acting)等，來提高學(xué)生在單位時(shí)間內(nèi)聽、說、讀、寫的功效，獲得理想的教學(xué)效果。

2．英語課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)是英語學(xué)科教學(xué)特點(diǎn)的需要。英語科不同于其他學(xué)科，英語學(xué)科的一個(gè)顯著特點(diǎn)就是實(shí)踐性強(qiáng)。只有通過大量的活動(dòng)和訓(xùn)練，才能很好地掌握和運(yùn)用，正如雜技演員，他們純熟的技藝都是苦練的結(jié)果。英語課的學(xué)習(xí)也是一樣，必須有足夠的練習(xí)，學(xué)生才能逐步領(lǐng)會(huì)所學(xué)的知識(shí)和規(guī)則，并能逐漸自如地運(yùn)用。其實(shí)踐性的特點(diǎn)，決定了它的課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)形式的靈活多樣，也只有通過豐富的課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)，才能使學(xué)生掌握聽、說、讀、寫的基本技能，從而熟練應(yīng)用英語進(jìn)行交際。而這些都有賴于設(shè)計(jì)好的教學(xué)活動(dòng)，需要教師傾注心血，在條理性、趣味性、邏輯性和科學(xué)性方面下功夫。

3．通過課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，不斷提高英語教師自身的教學(xué)能力的需要。英語課作為中學(xué)教育的基礎(chǔ)課程，有其不同一般的特殊性。素質(zhì)教育觀下的英語教學(xué)，對(duì)教師提出了更高的要求。其教學(xué)特征在于：多元的課堂教學(xué)目標(biāo)；適度“開放”的教學(xué)內(nèi)容；“任務(wù)式”的學(xué)習(xí)活動(dòng)；多樣的組織形式和變化的角色關(guān)系；互動(dòng)式的課堂話語；分層次的學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)和要求；和諧均衡的教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)置；健康愉悅的情感氛圍。為了達(dá)到上述要求，在課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)中，教師就需要查閱資料，博覽群書，猶如蜜蜂采花釀蜜，不斷充實(shí)豐富自己，最后厚積薄發(fā)，落實(shí)到設(shè)計(jì)方案中，這樣上課時(shí)才能有備無患，得心應(yīng)手，才能為提高課堂教學(xué)質(zhì)量提供了現(xiàn)實(shí)可能性，最終體現(xiàn)素質(zhì)教育所提倡的注重教學(xué)實(shí)質(zhì)、淡化教學(xué)形式的根本要求。

二、英語課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的依據(jù)

1．課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，首先應(yīng)該依據(jù)英語教學(xué)大綱。大綱是中學(xué)英語教學(xué)和改革的綱領(lǐng)性文件，它提出了英語教學(xué)的目的、任務(wù)、范圍、體系、教學(xué)進(jìn)度和對(duì)教學(xué)方法的基本要求，是我們進(jìn)行教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)、教學(xué)改革、教學(xué)評(píng)估、考試命題的依據(jù)，是衡量我們教學(xué)工作的準(zhǔn)繩，課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)必須全面、系統(tǒng)、透徹地掌握大綱的實(shí)質(zhì)性內(nèi)容，并貫徹到整個(gè)教學(xué)活動(dòng)中去。因此，我們要認(rèn)真鉆研教材，明確教學(xué)目的、任務(wù)和要求。根據(jù)英語教學(xué)特點(diǎn)，在設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)要把學(xué)生置于特定的英語環(huán)境之中，通過大量、反復(fù)的聽、說、讀、寫訓(xùn)練，通過一定的語言實(shí)際活動(dòng)，立足于現(xiàn)實(shí)，重視情感心靈交流，靈活運(yùn)用，大膽創(chuàng)新，銳意改革，淘汰那些傳統(tǒng)式的教學(xué)方法，想方設(shè)法地把枯燥無味的語言材料轉(zhuǎn)變成生動(dòng)活潑的活動(dòng)內(nèi)容。

2．英語課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，應(yīng)依據(jù)教材內(nèi)容。課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的過程，就是教師對(duì)教材內(nèi)容熟悉、理解的過程，就是對(duì)教學(xué)目的、教學(xué)原則和教學(xué)方法理解分析和準(zhǔn)備實(shí)施的過程，所以我們應(yīng)努力做到吃透教材內(nèi)容，理解和掌握教材的內(nèi)在聯(lián)系，組織好教材，安排好課時(shí)，抓住教材中的關(guān)鍵點(diǎn)，突出重點(diǎn)，突破難點(diǎn)，設(shè)計(jì)好課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)。

3．課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)，應(yīng)依據(jù)本校本班的學(xué)生特點(diǎn)。英語教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)不僅是設(shè)計(jì)教材，設(shè)計(jì)方法，更重要的是設(shè)計(jì)如何調(diào)動(dòng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)積極性，如何挖掘?qū)W生的內(nèi)在潛力。作為英語教師，對(duì)自己學(xué)生的知識(shí)水平、接受能力、學(xué)習(xí)態(tài)度、興趣愛好、個(gè)性特征、學(xué)習(xí)基礎(chǔ)等都要有全面的了解，以便根據(jù)大多數(shù)學(xué)生的實(shí)際情況，確定教學(xué)的起點(diǎn)、難度、深度和廣度，根據(jù)學(xué)生個(gè)性特征和個(gè)別差異，因人而異地進(jìn)行教學(xué)和輔導(dǎo)，同時(shí)，在設(shè)計(jì)新的教學(xué)活動(dòng)時(shí)，還要重視信息的反饋，使之更適應(yīng)學(xué)生知識(shí)水平和接受能力，使教師的主觀愿望與學(xué)生的客觀要求趨于統(tǒng)一。

三、英語課堂教學(xué)活動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)的模式實(shí)例

1．語言結(jié)構(gòu)呈現(xiàn)的模式。即向?qū)W生呈現(xiàn)新的語言項(xiàng)目，激活學(xué)生接受新語言信息的認(rèn)知狀態(tài)。下面以牛津初中英語7AUnit 4 中的Welcome to the unit為例。首先我們需要分析教材。本單元的功能項(xiàng)目是“食物”(Food)，涉及的話題有：談?wù)撟钕矚g的食物、飲料、水果；進(jìn)而可以了解中外飲食習(xí)慣和文化方面的差異，為之后Reading中的有關(guān)Food and lifestyles 內(nèi)容做好準(zhǔn)備。需要用到的語言項(xiàng)目有：有關(guān)食物、飲料等詞匯；可數(shù)、不可數(shù)名詞量的表達(dá)；句型“What’s your favourite food/drink? What would you like? How many... are there?”等。本單元的教學(xué)目的是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生掌握與飲食有關(guān)的語言基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)和基本技能，并能運(yùn)用語言進(jìn)行交際活動(dòng)的能力。因此可以先向?qū)W生提問：“What things do we eat/drink?”并用實(shí)物或圖片啟發(fā)引導(dǎo)學(xué)生說出已學(xué)過的食物、飲料名詞，同時(shí)引出新詞并熟悉其音、形、義。教師此時(shí)應(yīng)注意有意識(shí)地分出可數(shù)和不可數(shù)名詞，為下一步做鋪墊。然后用話題：“What’s your favourite food/drink?”激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣和交際動(dòng)機(jī)，進(jìn)行信息交流，從而熟練掌握有關(guān)詞匯。在此基礎(chǔ)上，再用“What would you like for breakfast/lunch/supper?”來引出量的表達(dá)。這是學(xué)生的難點(diǎn)，必須通過足夠使學(xué)生明了意思的實(shí)物或圖片以及大量有真實(shí)意義的操練來訓(xùn)練學(xué)生準(zhǔn)確流利地學(xué)會(huì)表達(dá)，包括口頭、筆頭表達(dá)。最后還可用“How many...”句型來強(qiáng)化這項(xiàng)技能。

2．情景對(duì)話教學(xué)的模式。這是學(xué)生對(duì)新語言項(xiàng)目的信息進(jìn)行加工的過程，也就是練習(xí)。有了第一步的扎實(shí)的語言結(jié)構(gòu)基礎(chǔ)，我們就可以通過教學(xué)課本中的幾個(gè)情景對(duì)話，把新的語言結(jié)構(gòu)置于一個(gè)具體的情境中，顯示語言功能，從中學(xué)會(huì)運(yùn)用。